Light-emitting device including quantum dots

ABSTRACT

A light emitting device including an emissive material comprising quantum dots is disclosed. In one embodiment, the device includes a cathode, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injection electrons comprising an inorganic material, an emissive layer comprising quantum dots, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes, a layer comprising a hole injection material, and an anode. In certain embodiments, the hole injection material can be a p-type doped hole transport material. In certain preferred embodiments, quantum dots comprise semiconductor nanocrystals. In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a light emitting device wherein the device has an initial turn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer. Other light emitting devices and a method are disclosed.

This application is a continuation of commonly owned InternationalApplication No. PCT/US2009/002123 filed 3 Apr. 2009, which was publishedin the English language as PCT Publication No. WO2009/123763 on 8 Oct.2009, which International Application claims priority to U.S.Application No. 61/042,154 filed 3 Apr. 2008, each of the foregoinghereby being incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with Government support under AdvancedTechnology Program Award No. 70NANB7H7056 awarded by NIST. The UnitedStates has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the technical field of devicesincluding quantum dots.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention there is provideda light emitting device including a cathode, a layer comprising amaterial capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising aninorganic material, an emissive layer comprising quantum dots, a layercomprising a material capable of transporting holes, a hole injectionmaterial, and an anode.

In certain embodiments, a light emitting device includes a cathode andan anode, and an emissive layer comprising quantum dots provided betweenthe cathode and the anode, and wherein the device further includes: alayer comprising material capable of transporting and injectingelectrons provided between the cathode and the emissive layer, a layercomprising material capable of transporting holes provided between theemissive layer and the anode, and a layer comprising a hole-injectionmaterial provided between the anode and the layer comprising materialcapable of transporting holes, wherein the material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic material andthe material capable of transporting holes comprises an organicmaterial.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons comprises an inorganic that is doped with a speciesto enhance electron transport characteristics of the inorganic material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons comprises an inorganic semiconductor material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons comprises a metal chalcogenide. In certainembodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal sulfide. Incertain preferred embodiments, the material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons comprises a metal oxide.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises titaniumdioxide.

In certain more preferred embodiments, the inorganic material compriseszinc oxide.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a mixture oftwo or more inorganic materials.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises amixture of zinc oxide and titanium oxide.

In certain embodiments, the layers are formed in the followingsequential order: the cathode, the layer comprising a material capableof transporting and injecting electrons comprising an inorganicmaterial, the emissive layer comprising quantum dots, the layercomprising a material capable of transporting holes comprising anorganic material, the layer comprising a hole injection material, andthe anode.

In certain embodiments, the layer comprising a material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons comprises a stratified structureincluding two or more horizontal zones having different conductivities.In certain embodiments, the stratified structure includes a first zone,on a side of the structure closer to the cathode, comprising an n-typedoped material with electron injecting characteristics, and a secondzone, on the side of the structure closer to the emissive layer,comprising an intrinsic or lightly doped material with electrontransport characteristics. In certain embodiments, for example, thefirst zone can comprise n-type doped zinc oxide and the second zone cancomprise intrinsic zinc oxide or n-type doped zinc oxide with a lowern-type dopant concentration that that of the zinc oxide in the firstzone. In certain embodiments, for example, the stratified structure caninclude a first zone, on a side of the structure closer to the cathode,comprising an n-type doped material with electron injectingcharacteristics, a third zone, on a side of the structure closer to theemissive layer, comprising an intrinsic material with hole blockingcharacteristics, and a second zone, between the first and third zones,comprising an intrinsic or lightly doped material with electrontransport characteristics. In certain embodiments, for example, thelayer comprising a material capable of transporting and injectingelectrons can comprise a first layer, closer to the cathode, comprisinga material capable of injecting electrons and a second layer, closer tothe emissive layer, comprising a material capable of transportingelectrons. In certain embodiments, for example, the layer comprising amaterial capable of transporting and injecting electrons can comprise afirst layer, closer to the cathode, comprising a material capable ofinjecting electrons, a second layer, closer to the emissive layer,comprising a material capable of blocking holes, and a third layerbetween the first and second layers, comprising a material capable oftransporting electrons.

In certain embodiments, the device can further include a spacer layerbetween the emissive layer and an adjacent layer included in the device(e.g., a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holesand/or a layer comprising a material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons).

A spacer layer can comprise an inorganic material. A spacer layer cancomprise an organic material. Additional information concerning a spacerlayer is provided below.

In certain preferred embodiments, a spacer layer comprises a materialnon-quenching to quantum dot emission.

In certain embodiments, the hole injection material can comprise amaterial capable of transporting holes that is p-type doped.

In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference betweenE_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and the Work function of the Cathode isless than 0.5 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of thedifference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and the Work function ofthe. Cathode is less than 0.3 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolutevalue of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and theWork function of the Cathode is less than 0.2 eV.

In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference betweenE_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and E_(conduction band edge) of thematerial capable of transporting & injecting electrons is less than 0.5eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference betweenE_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and E_(conduction band edge) of materialcapable of transporting & injecting electrons is less than 0.3 eV. Incertain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference betweenE_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and E_(conduction band edge) of materialcapable of transporting & injecting electrons is less than 0.2 eV.

In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference betweenE_(HOMO) of the quantum dots and the E_(VALENCE band edge) of thematerial capable of transporting and injecting electrons is greater thanabout 1 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the differencebetween E_(HOMO) of the quantum dots and the E_(VALENCE band edge) ofthe material capable of transporting and injecting electrons is greaterthan about 0.5 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of thedifference between E_(HOMO) of the quantum dots and theE_(VALENCE band edge) of the material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons is greater than about 0.3 eV.

In certain embodiments, the device can have an initial turn-on voltagethat is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength(nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments, light emission from the light emissive materialoccurs at a bias across the device that is less than the electron-Voltof the bandgap of the quantum dots in the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments, quantum dots can include a core comprising afirst material and a shell disposed over at least a portion of, andpreferably substantially all, of the outer surface of the core, theshell comprising a second material. (A quantum dot including a core andshell is also described herein as having a core/shell structure.) Incertain embodiments, more than one shell can be included in the core. Incertain embodiments, the first material comprises an inorganicsemiconductor material. In certain embodiments, the second materialcomprises an inorganic semiconductor material.

In certain embodiments, quantum dots comprise inorganic semiconductornanocrystals. In certain embodiments, inorganic semiconductornanocrystals can comprise a core/shell structure. In certain preferredembodiments, quantum dots comprise colloidally grown inorganicsemiconductor nanocrystals.

In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the quantum dots include aligand attached to an outer surface thereof. In certain embodiments, twoor more chemically distinct ligands can be attached to an outer surfaceof at least a portion of the quantum dots. In certain embodiments, ananode comprising a material with <5 eV work function can be used,thereby avoiding the need to utilize precious metals such as gold, etc.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a method for preparing a light emitting device, the methodcomprising:

forming a layer comprising a material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons on a cathode, wherein the material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic material;

applying an emissive layer comprising quantum dots thereover;

forming a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holescomprising an organic material over the emissive layer;

forming a layer comprising a hole injection material over the layercomprising a material capable of transporting holes; and

forming an anode over the layer comprising a hole injection material.

In certain embodiments, the method further comprises encapsulating thelight emitting device.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a light emitting device including a pair of electrodes, a layercomprising a light emissive material comprising quantum dots providedbetween the electrodes, and a layer comprising a material capable oftransporting electrons comprising an inorganic material provided betweenthe emissive layer and one of the electrodes, wherein the layercomprising the material capable of transporting electrons comprising aninorganic material comprises a stratified structure including two ormore horizontal zones having different conductivities. The inorganicmaterial included in different zones of the stratified structure can bedoped or undoped forms of the same or different materials.

In certain embodiments, the electron and hole populations are balancedat the emissive layer of the device.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises an inorganicsemiconductor material.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises ametal chalcogenide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic materialcomprises a metal sulfide. In certain preferred embodiments, theinorganic material comprises a metal oxide. In certain embodiments, theinorganic material comprises titanium dioxide.

In certain more preferred embodiments, the inorganic material compriseszinc oxide. In certain embodiments, the zinc oxide is surface treatedwith an oxidizing agent to render the surface proximate to the emissivelayer intrinsic.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material can comprise a mixture oftwo or more inorganic materials.

In certain embodiments, the layer comprising a stratified structure astaught herein can serve as a layer capable of transporting and injectingelectrons. In certain embodiments, a zone in a layer comprising astratified structure as taught herein can have a predeterminedconductivity so as to serve as a layer capable of transportingelectrons, a layer capable of injecting electrons, and/or a layercapable of blocking holes. In certain embodiments, a zone can comprise adistinct layer.

In accordance with another aspect of there present invention, there isprovided a light emitting device wherein the device has an initialturn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ representsthe wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments, a light emitting device comprising a cathode, alayer comprising a material capable of transporting and injectingelectrons, an emissive layer comprising quantum dots, a layer comprisinga material capable of transporting holes, a hole injection material, andan anode, the device having an initial turn-on voltage that is notgreater than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of lightemitted by the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments the material capable of transporting holescomprises an organic material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons comprises an inorganic material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons comprises an inorganic semiconductor material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons comprises a metal chalcogenide. In certainembodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal sulfide. Incertain preferred embodiments, the material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons comprises a metal oxide. In certain embodiments, theinorganic material comprises titanium dioxide.

In certain more preferred embodiments, the inorganic material compriseszinc oxide.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a mixture oftwo or more inorganic materials.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises amixture of zinc oxide and titanium oxide.

In certain embodiments the material capable of transporting holescomprises an inorganic material.

In certain embodiments the material capable of transporting holescomprises an organic material.

Preferably in certain embodiments, the layers are formed in thefollowing sequential order: the cathode, the layer comprising a materialcapable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising an inorganicmaterial, the emissive layer comprising quantum dots, the layercomprising a material capable of transporting holes, the layercomprising a hole injection material, and the anode.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a light emitting device comprising a pair of electrodes and alayer of a light emissive material provided between the electrodes,wherein light emission from the light emissive material occurs at a biasvoltage across the device that is less than the energy in electron-Voltsof the bandgap of the emissive material.

In certain embodiments, the light emitting device includes an emissivematerial comprising quantum dots. In certain embodiments, other wellknown light emissive materials can be used or included in the device. Incertain embodiments, additional layers can also be included. In certainembodiments, the device comprises a light emitting device in accordancewith embodiments of the invention taught herein.

In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there are provideddisplays and other products including the above-described light-emittingdevice.

In certain embodiments of the present invention taught are taughtherein, an emissive layer can include two or more different types ofquantum dots, wherein each type is selected to emit light having apredetermined wavelength. In certain embodiments, quantum dot types canbe different based on, for example, factors such composition, structureand/or size of the quantum dot. In certain embodiments, quantum dots canbe selected to emit at any predetermined wavelength across theelectromagnetic spectrum. An emissive layer can include different typesof quantum dots that have emissions at different wavelengths.

In certain embodiments, the light emitting device includes quantum dotscapable of emitting visible light.

In certain embodiments, the light emitting device includes quantum dotscapable of emitting infrared light.

As used herein, the terms “inorganic material” and “organic material”may be further defined by a functional descriptor, depending on thedesired function being addressed. In certain embodiments, the samematerial can address more than one function.

In some embodiments, it may be desirable to have differentconductivities which can be accomplished, for example, by changing thecarrier mobility and/or charge density of a material in a zone and/orlayer.

In certain embodiments including a stratified structure, horizontalzones are preferably parallel to the cathode.

Other aspects and embodiments of the invention relate to materials andmethods that are useful in making the above described light-emittingdevices, displays, and other products including the above-describedlight-emitting device.

The foregoing, and other aspects described herein, all constituteembodiments of the present invention.

It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description andthe following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory onlyand are not restrictive of the invention as claimed. Other embodimentswill be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of thedescription and drawings, from the claims, and from practice of theinvention disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the drawings:

FIG. 1 is schematic drawing depicting an example of an embodiment of alight-emitting device structure in accordance with the invention.

FIG. 2 provides a schematic band structure of an example of anembodiment of a light-emitting device in accordance with the invention.

FIGS. 3 & 4 graphically present performance data for the Red LightEmitting Device of the Examples.

FIG. 5 graphically presents performance data for the Green LightEmitting Device (A) and the Blue Light emitting Device (B) of theExamples.

FIG. 6 graphically compares lifetime data for the Red Light EmittingDevice of the Examples (indicated as “inverted structure” in the figure)and the Standard Light Emitting Device (a comparative device) describedin the Examples (indicated as “standard structure” in the figure).

FIG. 7 depicts an I (current)-V (voltage) curves for devices thatinclude hole injection layers and a device without a hole injectionlayer.

FIG. 8 shows device luminance efficiency for different devicestructures.

FIG. 9 shows luminance efficiency of a device without an electrontransport and hole blocking layer.

FIG. 10 shows luminance of inverted device without either a holeblocking or electron transport and injection layer.

FIG. 11 shows performance data for an example of device in accordancewith an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 12 shows operating voltage for an example of a red light emittingdevice in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 13 shows operating voltage for an example of an orange lightemitting device in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 14 shows efficiency at certain luminance for an example of anorange light emitting device in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 15 shows performance for an example of a device in accordance withany embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 16 is schematic drawing depicting an example of an embodiment of alight-emitting device structure in accordance with the invention.

The attached figures are simplified representations presented forpurposes of illustration only; the actual structures may differ innumerous respects, including, e.g., relative scale, etc.

For a better understanding to the present invention, together with otheradvantages and capabilities thereof, reference is made to the followingdisclosure and appended claims in connection with the above-describeddrawings.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

FIG. 1 provides a schematic representation of an example of thearchitecture of a light-emitting device according to one embodiment ofthe present invention. Referring to FIG. 1, the light-emitting device 10includes (from top to bottom) an anode 1, a layer comprising a holeinjection material 2, a layer comprising a material capable oftransporting holes (also referred to herein as a “hole transportmaterial”) 3, a layer including quantum dots 4, a layer comprising amaterial capable of transporting and injecting electrons (also referredto herein as an “electron transport material”) comprising an inorganicmaterial 5, a cathode 6, and a substrate (not shown). When voltage isapplied across the anode and cathode, the anode injects holes into thehole injection material while the cathode injects electrons into theelectron transport material. The injected holes and injected electronscombine to form an exciton on the quantum dot and emit light.

The substrate (not shown) can be opaque or transparent. A transparentsubstrate can be used, for example, in the manufacture of a transparentlight emitting device. See, for example, Bulovic, V. et al., Nature1996, 380, 29; and Gu, G. et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 1996, 68, 2606-2608,each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Thesubstrate can be rigid or flexible. The substrate can be plastic, metal,semiconductor wafer, or glass. The substrate can be a substrate commonlyused in the art. Preferably the substrate has a smooth surface. Asubstrate surface free of defects is particularly desirable.

The cathode 6 can be formed on the substrate (not shown). In certainembodiments, a cathode can comprise, ITO, aluminum, silver, gold, etc.The cathode preferably comprises a material with a work function chosenwith regard to the quantum dots included in the device. In certainembodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) ofthe quantum dots and the work function of the cathode is less than about0.5 eV. In certain embodiments the absolute value of the differencebetween E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and the work function of thecathode is less than about 0.3 eV, and preferably less than about 0.2eV. E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots represents the energy level of thelowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the quantum dot. Forexample, a cathode comprising indium tin oxide (ITO) can be preferredfor use with an emissive material including quantum dots comprising aCdSe core/CdZnSe shell.

Substrates including patterned ITO are commercially available and can beused in making a device according to the present invention.

The layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injectionelectrons 5 preferably comprises an inorganic material. In certainembodiments, the inorganic material included in the layer capable ortransporting and injection electrons comprises an inorganicsemiconductor material. Preferred inorganic semiconductor materialsinclude those having a band gap that is greater than the emission energyof the emissive material. In certain embodiments, the absolute value ofthe difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots andE_(conduction band edge) of material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons, is less than about 0.5 eV. In certain embodiments,the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantumdots and E_(conduction band edge) of the material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons, is less than about 0.3 eV, andpreferably less than about 0.2 eV E_(LUMO) of the quantum dotsrepresents the energy level of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital(LUMO) of the quantum dots; E_(of the conduction band edge) of thematerial capable of transporting and injecting electrons represents theenergy level of the conduction band edge of the material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons.

Examples of inorganic semiconductor materials include a metalchalcogenide, a metal pnictide, or elemental semiconductor, such as ametal oxide, a metal sulfide, a metal selenide, a metal telluride, ametal nitride, a metal phosphide, a metal arsenide, or metal arsenide.For example, an inorganic semiconductor material can include, withoutlimitation, zinc oxide, a titanium oxide, a niobium oxide, an indium tinoxide, copper oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, chromium oxide,indium oxide, tin oxide, gallium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide,cobalt oxide, aluminum oxide, thallium oxide, silicon oxide, germaniumoxide, lead oxide, zirconium oxide, molybdenum oxide, hafnium oxide,tantalum oxide, tungsten oxide, cadmium oxide, iridium oxide, rhodiumoxide, ruthenium oxide, osmium oxide, zinc sulfide, zinc selenide, zinctelluride, cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, cadmium telluride, mercurysulfide, mercury selenide, mercury telluride, silicon carbide, diamond(carbon), silicon, germanium, aluminum nitride, aluminum phosphide,aluminum arsenide, aluminum antimonide, gallium nitride, galliumphosphide, gallium arsenide, gallium antimonide, indium nitride, indiumphosphide, indium arsenide, indium antimonide, thallium nitride,thallium phosphide, thallium arsenide, thallium antimonide, leadsulfide, lead selenide, lead telluride, iron sulfide, indium selenide,indium sulfide, indium telluride, gallium sulfide, gallium selenide,gallium telluride, tin selenide, tin telluride, tin sulfide, magnesiumsulfide, magnesium selenide, magnesium telluride, barium titanate,barium zirconate, zirconium silicate, yttria, silicon nitride, and amixture of two or more thereof. In certain embodiments, the inorganicsemiconductor material can include a dopant.

In certain preferred embodiments, an electron transport material caninclude an n-type dopant.

An example of a preferred inorganic semiconductor material for inclusionin an electron transport material of a device in accordance with theinvention is zinc oxide. In certain embodiments, zinc oxide can be mixedor blended with one or more other inorganic materials, e.g., inorganicsemiconductor materials, such as titanium oxide.

As mentioned above, in certain preferred embodiments, a layer comprisinga material capable of transporting and injecting electrons can comprisezinc oxide. Such zinc oxide can be prepared, for example, by a sol-gelprocess. In certain embodiments, the zinc oxide can be chemicallymodified. Examples of chemical modification include treatment withhydrogen peroxide.

In other preferred embodiments, a layer comprising a material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons can comprise a mixture includingzinc oxide and titanium oxide.

The electron transport material is preferably included in the device asa layer. In certain embodiments, the layer has a thickness in a rangefrom about 10 nm to 500 nm.

Electron transport materials comprising an inorganic semiconductormaterial can be deposited at a low temperature, for example, by a knownmethod, such as a vacuum vapor deposition method, an ion-plating method,sputtering, inkjet printing, sol-gel, etc. For example, sputtering istypically performed by applying a high voltage across a low-pressure gas(for example, argon) to create a plasma of electrons and gas ions in ahigh-energy state. Energized plasma ions strike a target of the desiredcoating material, causing atoms from that target to be ejected withenough energy to travel to, and bond with, the substrate.

In certain embodiments, the layer comprising a material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons can comprise a stratified structurecomprising an inorganic material, wherein the stratified structureincludes two or more horizontal zones having different conductivities.For example, in certain embodiments, the layer can include a first zoneat the upper portion of the layer (nearer the emissive layer) comprisingan intrinsic or slightly n-type doped inorganic material (e.g.,sputtered intrinsic or slightly n-type doped zinc oxide) with electrontransporting characteristics, and a second zone at the lower portion ofthe layer (more remote from the emissive layer) comprising inorganicmaterial that has a higher concentration of n-type doping than thematerial in the first zone (e.g., sputtered n-type doped ZnO) withelectron injection characteristics.

In another example, in certain embodiments, the layer can include threehorizontal zones, e.g., a first zone at the upper portion of the layer(nearest the emissive layer) comprising an intrinsic inorganic material(e.g., sputtered intrinsic zinc oxide) which can be hole blocking; asecond zone (between the first zone and the third zone) comprising anintrinsic or slightly n-type doped inorganic material (e.g., sputteredintrinsic or slightly n-type doped zinc oxide or another metal oxide)which can be electron transporting; and a third zone at the lowestportion of the layer (most remote from the emissive layer) comprisinginorganic material that has a higher concentration of n-type doping thanthe material in the second zone (e.g., sputtered n-type doped ZnO oranother metal oxide) which can be hole injecting.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material included in thestratified structure comprises an inorganic semiconductor material. Incertain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metalchalcogenide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises ametal sulfide. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic materialcomprises a metal oxide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic materialcomprises titanium dioxide. In certain more preferred embodiments, theinorganic material comprises zinc oxide. In certain embodiments, theinorganic material can comprise a mixture of two or more inorganicmaterials. Other inorganic materials taught herein for inclusion in alayer comprising a material capable of transporting and injectionelectrons can also be included in a stratified structure.

Additional information concerning inorganic materials that may be usefulfor inclusion in an electron transport layer is disclosed inInternational Application No. PCT/US2006/005184, filed 15 Feb. 2006, for“Light Emitting Device Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals, whichpublished as WO 2006/088877 on 26 Aug. 2006, the disclosure of which ishereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The surface of the device on which an inorganic semiconductor materialis to be formed can be cooled or heated for temperature control duringthe growth process. The temperature can affect the crystallinity of thedeposited material as well as how it interacts with the surface it isbeing deposited upon. The deposited material can be polycrystalline oramorphous. The deposited material can have crystalline domains with asize in the range of 10 Angstroms to 1 micrometer. If doped, the dopingconcentration can be controlled by, for example, varying the gas, ormixture of gases, with a sputtering plasma technique. The nature andextent of doping can influence the conductivity of the deposited film,as well as its ability to optically quench neighboring excitons.

The emissive material 4 includes quantum dots. In certain embodiments,the quantum dots comprise an inorganic semiconductor material. Incertain preferred embodiments, the quantum dots comprise crystallineinorganic semiconductor material (also referred to as semiconductornanocrystals). Examples of preferred inorganic semiconductor materialsinclude, but are not limited to, Group II-VI compound semiconductornanocrystals, such as CdS, CdSe, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, andother binary, ternary, and quaternary II-VI compositions; Group III-Vcompound semiconductor nanocrystals, such as GaP, GaAs, InP and InAs;PbS; PbSe; PbTe, and other binary, ternary, and quaternary III-Vcompositions. Other non-limiting examples of inorganic semiconductormaterials include Group II-V compounds, Group III-VI compounds, GroupIV-VI compounds, Group I-III-VI compounds, Group II-IV-VI compounds,Group II-IV-V compounds, Group IV elements, an alloy including any ofthe foregoing, and/or a mixture including any of the foregoing. Further,materials for the quantum dot light-emitting layer may be core-shellstructured nanocrystals (for example, CdSe/ZnS, CdS/ZnSe, InP/ZnS, etc.)wherein the core is composed of a semiconductor nanocrystal (e.g. CdSe,CdS, etc.) and the shell is composed of a crystalline inorganicsemiconductor material (e.g., ZnS, ZnSe, etc.).

Quantum dots can also have various shapes, including, but not limitedto, sphere, rod, disk, other shapes, and mixtures of various shapedparticles.

An emissive material can comprise one or more different quantum dots.The differences can be based, for example, on different composition,different size, different structure, or other distinguishingcharacteristic or property.

The color of the light output of a light-emitting device can becontrolled by the selection of the composition, structure, and size ofthe quantum dots included in a light-emitting device as the emissivematerial.

The emissive material is preferably included in the device as a layer.In certain embodiments, the emissive layer can comprise one or morelayers of the same or different emissive material(s). In certainembodiments, the emissive layer can have a thickness in a range fromabout 1 nm to about 20 nm. In certain embodiments, the emissive layercan have a thickness in a range from about 1 nm to about 10 nm. Incertain embodiments, the emissive layer can have a thickness in a rangefrom about 3 nm to about 6 about nm. In certain embodiments, theemissive layer can have a thickness of about 4 nm. A thickness of 4 nmcan be preferred in a device including an electron transport materialincluding a metal oxide.

Preferably, the quantum dots include one or more ligands attached to thesurface thereof. In certain embodiments, a ligand can include an alkyl(e.g., C₁-C₂₀) species. In certain embodiments, an alkyl species can bestraight-chain, branched, or cyclic. In certain embodiments, an alkylspecies can be substituted or unsubstituted. In certain embodiments, analkyl species can include a hetero-atom in the chain or cyclic species.In certain embodiments, a ligand can include an aromatic species. Incertain embodiments, an aromatic species can be substituted orunsubstituted. In certain embodiments, an aromatic species can include ahetero-atom. Additional information concerning ligands is providedherein and in various of the below-listed documents which areincorporated herein by reference.

By controlling the structure, shape and size of quantum dots duringpreparation, energy levels over a very broad range of wavelengths can beobtained while the properties of the bulky materials are varied. Quantumdots (including but not limited to semiconductor nanocrystals) can beprepared by known techniques. Preferably they are prepared by a wetchemistry technique wherein a precursor material is added to acoordinating or non-coordinating solvent (typically organic) andnanocrystals are grown so as to have an intended size. According to thewet chemistry technique, when a coordinating solvent is used, as thequantum dots are grown, the organic solvent is naturally coordinated tothe surface of the quantum dots, acting as a dispersant. Accordingly,the organic solvent allows the quantum dots to grow to thenanometer-scale level. The wet chemistry technique has an advantage inthat quantum dots of a variety of sizes can be uniformly prepared byappropriately controlling the concentration of precursors used, the kindof organic solvents, and preparation temperature and time, etc.

The emission from a quantum dot capable of emitting light (e.g., asemiconductor nanocrystal) can be a narrow Gaussian emission band thatcan be tuned through the complete wavelength range of the ultraviolet,visible, or infra-red regions of the spectrum by varying the size of thequantum dot, the composition of the quantum dot, or both. For example, asemiconductor nanocrystal comprising CdSe can be tuned in the visibleregion; a semiconductor nanocrystal comprising InAs can be tuned in theinfra-red region. The narrow size distribution of a population ofquantum dots capable of emitting light (e.g., semiconductornanocrystals) can result in emission of light in a narrow spectralrange. The population can be monodisperse preferably exhibits less thana 15% rms (root-mean-square) deviation in diameter of such quantum dots,more preferably less than 10%, most preferably less than 5%. Spectralemissions in a narrow range of no greater than about 75 nm, no greaterthan about 60 nm, no greater than about 40 nm, and no greater than about30 nm full width at half max (FWHM) for such quantum dots that emit inthe visible can be observed. IR-emitting quantum dots can have a FWHM ofno greater than 150 nm, or no greater than 100 nm. Expressed in terms ofthe energy of the emission, the emission can have a FWHM of no greaterthan 0.05 eV, or no greater than 0.03 eV. The breadth of the emissiondecreases as the dispersity of the light-emitting quantum dot diametersdecreases.

For example, semiconductor nanocrystals can have high emission quantumefficiencies such as greater than 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%,80%, or 90%.

The narrow FWHM of semiconductor nanocrystals can result in saturatedcolor emission. The broadly tunable, saturated color emission over theentire visible spectrum of a single material system is unmatched by anyclass of organic chromophores (see, for example, Dabbousi et al., J.Phys. Chem. 101, 9463 (1997), which is incorporated by reference in itsentirety). A monodisperse population of semiconductor nanocrystals willemit light spanning a narrow range of wavelengths. A pattern includingmore than one size of semiconductor nanocrystal can emit light in morethan one narrow range of wavelengths. The color of emitted lightperceived by a viewer can be controlled by selecting appropriatecombinations of semiconductor nanocrystal sizes and materials. Thedegeneracy of the band edge energy levels of semiconductor nanocrystalsfacilitates capture and radiative recombination of all possibleexcitons.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can provide information about thesize, shape, and distribution of the semiconductor nanocrystalpopulation. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns can provide the mostcomplete information regarding the type and quality of the crystalstructure of the semiconductor nanocrystals. Estimates of size are alsopossible since particle diameter is inversely related, via the X-raycoherence length, to the peak width. For example, the diameter of thesemiconductor nanocrystal can be measured directly by transmissionelectron microscopy or estimated from X-ray diffraction data using, forexample, the Scherrer equation. It also can be estimated from the UV/Vis absorption spectrum.

An emissive material can be deposited by spin-casting, screen-printing,inkjet printing, gravure printing, roll coating, drop-casting,Langmuir-Blodgett techniques, contact printing or other techniques knownor readily identified by one skilled in the relevant art.

In certain embodiments, a layer comprising a spacer material (not shown)can be included between the emissive material and a layer of the deviceadjacent thereto, for example, an electron transport layer and/or a holetransport layer. A layer comprising a spacer material can promote betterelectrical interface between the emissive layer and the adjacent chargetransport layer. A spacer material may comprise an organic material oran inorganic material. In certain embodiments, a spacer materialcomprises parylene. Preferably, the spacer material comprises anambipolar material. More preferably, it is non-quenching. In certainembodiments, for example, a spacer material between the emissive layerand a hole transport layer can comprise an ambipolar host or holetransport material, or nanoparticles such as nickel oxide, and othermetal oxides.

Examples of hole transport materials 3 include organic material andinorganic materials. An example of an organic material that can beincluded in a hole transport layer includes an organic chromophore. Theorganic chromophore can include a phenyl amine, such as, for example,N,N′-diphenyl-N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-(1,1′-biphenyl)-4,4′-diamine(TPD). Other hole transport layer can include(N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-bis(phenyl)-spiro (spiro-TPD),4-4′-N,N′-dicarbazolyl-biphenyl (CBP),4,4-bis[N-(1-naphthyl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (NPD), etc., apolyaniline, a polypyrrole, a poly(phenylene vinylene), copperphthalocyanine, an aromatic tertiary amine or polynuclear aromatictertiary amine, a 4,4′-bis(p-carbazolyl)-1,1′-biphenyl compound,N,N,N′,N′-tetraarylbenzidine, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)(PEDOT)/polystyrene para-sulfonate (PSS) derivatives,poly-N-vinylcarbazole derivatives, polyphenylenevinylene derivatives,polyparaphenylene derivatives, polymethacrylate derivatives,poly(9,9-octylfluorene) derivatives, poly(spiro-fluorene) derivatives,N,N′-di(naphthalene-1-yl)-N,N′-diphenyl-benzidine (NPB),tris(3-methylphenylphenylamino)-triphenylamine (m-MTDATA), andpoly(9,9′-dioctylfluorene-co-N-(4-butylphenyl)diphenylamine (TFB), andspiro-NPB.

In certain preferred embodiments, a hole transport layer comprises anorganic small molecule material, a polymer, a spiro-compound (e.g.,spiro-NPB), etc.

In certain embodiments of the inventions described herein, a holetransport layer can comprise an inorganic material. Examples ofinorganic materials include, for example, inorganic semiconductormaterials capable of transporting holes. The inorganic material can beamorphous or polycrystalline. Examples of such inorganic materials andother information related to fabrication of inorganic hole transportmaterials that may be helpful are disclosed in International ApplicationNo. PCT/US2006/005184, filed 15 Feb. 2006, for “Light Emitting DeviceIncluding Semiconductor Nanocrystals, which published as WO 2006/088877on 26 Aug. 2006, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety.

Hole transport materials comprising, for example, an inorganic materialsuch as an inorganic semiconductor material, can be deposited at a lowtemperature, for example, by a known method, such as a vacuum vapordeposition method, an ion-plating method, sputtering, inkjet printing,sol-gel, etc.

Organic hole transport materials may be deposited by known methods suchas a vacuum vapor deposition method, a sputtering method, a dip-coatingmethod, a spin-coating method, a casting method, a bar-coating method, aroll-coating method, and other film deposition methods. Preferably,organic layers are deposited under ultra-high vacuum (e.g., ≦10⁻⁸ torr),high vacuum (e.g., from about 10⁻⁸ torr to about 10⁻⁵ torr), or lowvacuum conditions (e.g., from about 10⁻⁵ torr to about 10⁻³ torr).

Hole transport materials comprising organic materials and otherinformation related to fabrication of organic charge transport layersthat may be helpful are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/253,612 for “Method And System For Transferring A PatternedMaterial”, filed 21 Oct. 2005, and Ser. No. 11/253,595 for “LightEmitting Device Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals”, filed 21 Oct.2005, each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety.

The hole transport material is preferably included in the device as alayer. In certain embodiments, the layer can have a thickness in a rangefrom about 10 nm to about 500 nm.

Device 10 includes a hole-injection material 2. The hole-injectionmaterial may comprise a separate hole injection material or may comprisean upper portion of the hole transport layer that has been doped,preferably p-type doped. The hole-injection material can be inorganic ororganic. Examples of organic hole injection materials include, but arenot limited to, LG-101 (see, for example, paragraph [0024] of EP 1 843411 A1) and other HIL materials available from LG Chem, LTD. Otherorganic hole injection materials can be used. Examples of p-type dopantsinclude, but are not limited to, stable, acceptor-type organic molecularmaterial, which can lead to an increased hole conductivity in the dopedlayer, in comparison with a non-doped layer. In certain embodiments, adopant comprising an organic molecular material can have a highmolecular mass, such as, for example, at least 300 amu. Examples ofdopants include, without limitation, F₄-TCNQ, FeCl₃, etc. Examples ofdoped organic materials for use as a hole injection material include,but are not limited to, an evaporated hole transport materialcomprising, e.g., 4,4′,4″-tris(diphenylamino)triphenylamine (TDATA) thatis doped with tetrafluoro-tetracyano-quinodimethane (F₄-TCNQ); p-dopedphthalocyanine (e.g., zinc-phthalocyanine (ZnPc) doped with F₄-TCNQ (at,for instance, a molar doping ratio of approximately 1:30);N,N′-diphenyl-N,N′-bis(1-naphthyl)-1,1′biphenyl-4,4″diamine (alpha-NPD)doped with F₄-TCNQ. See J. Blochwitz, et al., “Interface ElectronicStructure Of Organic Semiconductors With Controlled Doping Levels”,Organic Electronics 2 (2001) 97-104; R. Schmechel, 48, InternationalesWissenschaftliches Kolloquium, Technische Universtaat Ilmenau, 22-25Sep. 2003; C. Chan et al., “Contact Potential Difference Measurements OfDoped Organic Molecular Thin Films”, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 22(4),July/August 2004. The disclosures of the foregoing papers are herebyincorporated herein by reference in their entireties. See also, Examplesof p-type doped inorganic hole transport materials are described in U.S.Patent Application No. 60/653,094 entitled “Light Emitting DeviceIncluding Semiconductor Nanocrystals, filed 16 Feb. 2005, which ishereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Examples ofp-type doped organic hole transport materials are described in U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 60/795,420 of Beatty et al, for“Device Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals And A Layer Including ADoped Organic Material And Methods”, filed 27 Apr. 2006, which is herebyincorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

As shown in FIG. 1, anode 1 may comprise an electrically conductivemetal or its oxide that can easily inject holes. Examples include, butare not limited to, ITO, aluminum, aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO),silver, gold, etc. Other suitable anode materials are known and can bereadily ascertained by the skilled artisan. The anode material can bedeposited using any suitable technique. In certain embodiments, theanode can be patterned.

FIG. 16 provides a schematic cross section of an example of anembodiment of a light-emitting device structure in accordance with theinvention, wherein the emissive layer comprises core/shell quantum dots.(The substrate is not shown.)

In certain embodiments, the light-emitting device may be fabricated bysequentially forming the cathode 6, the electron transport materialcomprising an inorganic material 5, the emissive material 4, the holetransport material 3, and the anode 2. This sequential approach avoidsthe deposition of the emissive material comprising quantum dots directlyonto an organic material.

In certain embodiments, an adhesion promoter can be included between theelectron transport material and the emissive material. One example of asuitable adhesion promoter is ozone treatment of the upper surface ofthe electron transport material. Other adhesion promoters can be used.

In certain embodiments, the electrode (e.g., anode or cathode) materialsand other materials are selected based on the light transparencycharacteristics thereof so that a device can be prepared that emitslight from the top surface thereof. A top emitting device can beadvantageous for constructing an active matrix device (e.g., a display).In certain embodiments, the electrode (e.g., anode or cathode) materialsand other materials are selected based on light transparencycharacteristics thereof so that a device can be prepared that emitslight from the bottom surface thereof.

As mentioned above, the device can further include a substrate (notshown in the figure). Examples of substrate materials include, withoutlimitation, glass, plastic, insulated metal foil.

In certain embodiments, a device can further include a passivation orother protective layer that can be used to protect the device from theenvironment. For example, a protective glass layer can be included toencapsulate the device. Optionally a desiccant or other moistureabsorptive material can be included in the device before it is sealed,e.g., with an epoxy, such as a UV curable epoxy. Other desiccants ormoisture absorptive materials can be used.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a method for preparing a light emitting device, such as, forexample, a device as illustrated in FIG. 1. The method comprising:forming a layer comprising a material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons on a cathode, wherein the material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic material;applying an emissive layer comprising quantum dots thereover; forming alayer comprising a material capable of transporting holes comprising anorganic material over the emissive layer; forming a layer comprising ahole injection material over the layer comprising a material capable oftransporting holes; and forming an anode over the layer comprising ahole injection material.

Examples of materials that can be included in the method include thosedescribed herein.

Other information and techniques described herein and incorporated byreference can also be useful in practicing a method in accordance withthe present invention.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a light emitting device including a pair of electrodes, a layercomprising a light emissive material comprising quantum dots providedbetween the electrodes, and a layer comprising a material capable oftransporting electrons comprising an inorganic material provided betweenthe emissive layer and one of the electrodes, wherein the layercomprising the material capable of transporting electrons comprising aninorganic material comprises a stratified structure including two ormore horizontal zones having different conductivities. The inorganicmaterial included in different zones of the stratified structure can bedoped or undoped forms of the same or different materials.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises an inorganicsemiconductor material. For example, if a first zone comprises anintrinsic inorganic semiconductor material, a second zone, adjacentthereto, can comprise a doped inorganic semiconductor material; if afirst zone comprises an n-type doped inorganic semiconductor material, asecond zone, adjacent thereto, can comprise a slightly lower n-typedoped or intrinsic inorganic semiconductor material. In certainembodiments, the inorganic semiconductor material that is doped can be adoped form of an intrinsic material included in another zone of thestratified structure. While these examples describe a stratifiedstructure including two zones, a stratified structure can include morethan two zones. The inorganic semiconductor material included indifferent zones of the stratified structure can be doped or undopedforms of the same or different materials.

In certain embodiments, the layer comprising a stratified structure canserve as a layer capable of transporting and injecting electrons. Incertain embodiments, a zone in a layer comprising a stratified structurecan have a predetermined conductivity so as to serve as a layer capableof transporting electrons, a layer capable of injecting electrons,and/or a layer capable of blocking holes. In certain embodiments, a zonecan comprise a distinct layer.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metalchalcogenide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises ametal sulfide. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic materialcomprises a metal oxide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic materialcomprises titanium dioxide. In certain more preferred embodiments, theinorganic material comprises zinc oxide. In certain embodiments, theinorganic material comprises a mixture of two or more inorganicmaterials. Other examples of inorganic semiconductor materials that canbe used include those described elsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, a layer comprising an inorganic semiconductormaterial that includes a stratified structure as taught herein can serveas a layer capable of transporting electrons, injecting electrons,and/or blocking holes.

Examples of materials useful for the anode and cathode include thosedescribed elsewhere herein.

Quantum dots included in the emissive layer can include those describedelsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, different conductivities can be accomplished,for example, by changing the carrier mobility and/or charge density ofthe material.

In certain embodiments including an inorganic material comprising ametal oxide, for example, conduction properties of layers comprising ametal oxide are highly dependent on the concentration of oxygen in thelayer structure since vacancies are the main mode of carrier conduction.For example, in certain embodiments, to control the oxygen concentrationin sputter deposited layers (e.g., made by magnetron RF sputterdeposition) two properties of the deposition can be altered. The powerof deposition can be varied, increasing and decreasing the amount ofoxygen that is incorporated in the layer. The powers and resultingconductivities are highly dependent on the material and the sputtersystem used. More oxygen can also be incorporated into the layer byadding oxygen to the sputter chamber gas environment which is oftendominated by noble gases like Argon. Both the power and oxygen partialpressure can be used or customized to produce the desired layered metaloxide structure. Lowering the RF power during deposition can increasethe conductivity of the layer, reducing the parasitic resistance of thelayer. To deposit a low conductivity layer, oxygen is incorporated intothe deposition ambient to place a thin insulating surface on the layerformed.

Other information and techniques described herein and incorporated byreference can also be useful with this aspect of the present invention.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a light emitting device comprising a pair of electrodes and alayer of a light emissive material provided between the electrodes,wherein light emission from the light emissive material occurs at a biasvoltage across the device that is less than the energy in electron-Voltsof the bandgap of the emissive material. In certain embodiments, thelight emitting device includes an emissive material comprising quantumdots.

Examples of quantum dots included in the emissive layer can includethose described elsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, other well known light emissive materials can beused or included in the device.

Examples of materials useful for the electrodes include those describedelsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, additional layers described herein can also beincluded.

Other information and techniques described herein and incorporated byreference can also be useful with this aspect of the present invention.

In certain embodiments, the device comprises one of the light emittingdevices taught herein.

In accordance with another aspect of there present invention, there isprovided a light emitting device wherein the device has an initialturn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ representsthe wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments, a light emitting device comprising a cathode, alayer comprising a material capable of transporting and injectingelectrons comprising an inorganic material, an emissive layer comprisingquantum dots, a layer comprising a material capable of transportingholes, a hole injection material, and an anode, the device having aninitial turn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λrepresents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.

Examples of materials useful for the anode and cathode include thosedescribed elsewhere herein.

Examples of materials useful for the layer comprising a material capableof transporting and injection electrons include those describedelsewhere herein.

Examples of materials useful for the layer comprising a material capableof transporting holes include those described elsewhere herein.

Examples of materials useful for the layer comprising a hole injectionmaterial include those described elsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, additional layers described herein can also beincluded.

Other information and techniques described herein and incorporated byreference can also be useful with this aspect of the present invention.

In certain embodiments, the device comprises one of the light emittingdevices taught herein.

In certain embodiments an additional hole transport material with a holeconductivity between that of the hole injection material and the holetransport material can be interposed between them. Additional holetransport materials can be interposed between two other hole conductivematerials included in the device. Preferably, any additional interposedhole transport material will have a hole conductivity that fallsin-between those of the hole transport materials between which it isinterposed.

FIG. 2 schematically provides the band structure of an example of anembodiment of a light emitting device of the present invention. In thedepicted example, a metal oxide is used as a layer that is electrontransporting and injecting and hole blocking . Such layer can befabricated with solution process or thermal evaporation. An electrontransport layer including ZnO is preferred. In certain embodiments, ZnOcan be preferably doped to form an ohmic contact with the cathode. Inthe depicted example, the hole transport layer (HTL) can comprise anorganic material (e.g., small organic molecules (for example, TPD,spiro-TPB, NPB, spiro-NPB, etc.). In certain embodiments, the HTL cancomprise an inorganic material. A hole injection layer (or p-type dopedHTL) is also included in the depicted example to enhance hole supplyfrom the anode. In the depicted structure, electrons are transportedthrough the metal oxide and holes are transported through the HTL,excitons are generated in the quantum dot (QD) layer. The compositionand size of the quantum dots are selected to achieve light emission witha predetermined color or wavelength.

A light-emitting device in accordance with the invention can be used tomake a light-emitting device including red-emitting, green-emitting,and/or blue-emitting quantum dots. Other color light-emitting quantumdots can be included, alone or in combination with one or more otherdifferent quantum dots. In certain embodiments, separate layers of oneor more different quantum dots may be desirable. In certain embodiments,a layer can include a mixture of two or more different quantum dots.

The present invention will be further clarified by the followingnon-limiting examples, which are intended to be exemplary of the presentinvention.

EXAMPLES

In the following examples, the quantum dots included in the emissivelayer may comprise red-emitting core/shell semiconductor nanocrystals(also abbreviated herein as “SOP”, “R-SOP”), green-emitting core/shellsemiconductor nanocrystals (also abbreviated herein as “GQD”),blue-emitting core/shell semiconductor nanocrystals (also abbreviatedherein as “BQD”), or yellow-emitting core/shell semiconductornanocrystals (also abbreviated herein as “YQD”), which are preparedgenerally according to the following respective procedures. In anyinstances where a quantum dot is described by a “10×” modifier, thepreparation is generally carried out on a scale approximately ten timesthat of the respective preparation procedure described below.

I. Quantum Dot Preparations Red-Emitting Quantum Dot Preparation

A. Synthesis of CdSe Semiconductor Nanocrystal Cores

230 mg of anhydrous cadmium acetate (Cd(OAc)₂) (1 mmol) (Prochem) and 4mL of Tri-n-octylphosphine (TOP) (Strem 97%) is added to a 20 mL septumcapped vial. The vial is suspended in a 140° C. oil bath (silicon oil).The content of the vial is degassed for about one-half hour. After thecadmium acetate solution is degassed, and the cadmium acetate isdissolved, the vacuum is closed and the vial is opened to nitrogen. Thevial is removed from the oil bath and permitted to cool to roomtemperature while under nitrogen.

6.00 grams of Tri-n-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO) (99% Strem) and 0.668grams of octadecylphosphonic acid (ODPA) (Polycarbon) are added to a 50mL three necked round bottom flask. The ingredients are stirred andheated to a temperature of about 120° C. Once the flask reaches 120° C.,the solution is degassed for 2 hours while maintained at 120° C. Whenthe solution in the round bottom flask has finished degassing, thevacuum valve is closed and the flask is opened to nitrogen and stirred.

4 mL of the cadmium acetate solution is mixed and injected into theround bottom flask via a septum cap from a syringe filled undernitrogen. The temperature is increased to about 270° C. When thetemperature of the solution in the round bottom flask stabilizes at 270°C., 2 mL of Tri-n-butylphosphine (TBP) (Strem 99%) is injected into theround bottom flask from a 5 mL syringe. When the contents of the roundbottom flask has restabilized at 270° C., 1.1 mL of Tri-n-butylphosphineselenide (TBPSe) (1.5M) is injected into the round bottom flask. Thetemperature controller is adjusted to 250° C. After a brief delay (5secs), the solution turns yellow then red.

Periodic samples are taken until an absorbance of ˜560 nm is obtained,at which time the heating mantle is removed and the solution ispermitted to cool while stirring. When the temperature is 100° C., thesolution is divided into half into 2 centrifuge tubes, and 2× volume of3:1 methanol/isopropanol is added to each tube to precipitatesemiconductor nanocrystal cores. The supernatant is poured off, and thesemiconductor nanocrystal cores are mixed with hexane (minimum volume2.5 mL in each tube). The contents of the two centrifuge tubes are thencombined, centrifuged for 5 minutes at 4000 rpm, and filtered withhexane using a 0.2 micron filter.

B. Overcoating the CdSe Cores to Prepare CdSe/CdZnS SemiconductorNanocrystals

-   -   Two 5 mL syringes are prepared in the glove box with the        precursors for the overcoating.    -   The first syringe: 4 mL of Tri-n-octylphosphine (TOP) (97%        Strem), 48.24 mg dimethylcadmium, and 41.81 mg diethylzinc.    -   The second syringe: 4 mL of Tri-n-octylphosphine (TOP) (97%        Strem) and 241.68 mg of Bis(TMS)sulfide.    -   The overcoating precursor mixture for each syringe is prepared        by placing the Tri-n-octylphosphine into an 8 mL glass vial. The        precursors (dimethylcadmium, diethylzinc, or Bis(TMS)sulfide)        are then dripped into the Tri-n-octylphosphine using a        micropipette until the right weight of material has been added        to each vial. The solution is mixed gently with the vial capped        and then drawn up into the 5 mL syringe.    -   Micro capillary tubing is then loaded onto each syringe and a        small amount of solution is pushed through to clear the tubing        of nitrogen. (This can optionally be carried out inside a glove        box).

Ten (10) grams of Tri-n-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO) (99% Strem) and 0.8grams of octadecylphosphonic acid (ODPA) (Polycarbon Industries) areadded to a 4 neck 50 mL round bottom flask including a football-shapedmagnetic stirrer bar. The flask is also equipped with a rubber septum ontwo of the four necks, a distillation column on the middle neck and thetemperature probe in the last neck. The contents of the flask are heatedto 130° C. while under nitrogen. When the temperature reaches 130° C.,the nitrogen line is closed, and the flask is slowly opened up tovacuum. The contents of the flask are degassed under vacuum at 130° C.for roughly 2 hours. When the solution in the round bottom flask hasfinished degassing, the vacuum is closed and the flask is opened up tonitrogen. The temperature of the flask is set to 70° C. When the flaskhas lowered to 70° C., the CdSe cores prepared (approximately 0.09-to0.1 mmol) as described above in hexane is added to the round bottomflask using a 5 mL syringe. The vacuum is slowly opened up and all ofthe hexane is removed from the flask, leaving behind the CdSe cores(this can take as long as an hour). When all of the hexane has beenremoved, the vacuum is closed and the flask is opened up to nitrogen.0.48 mL of Decylamine [1:1 amine: phosphonic] (using 1 mL syringe) isadded and the temperature is increased to 155° C. under nitrogen. Thesyringes are loaded into syringe pumps to introduce the two lines intothe flask (one going through each septum, so that the micro capillarytubing is hugging the flask wall and about 0.5 cm submerged into thestirring solution), and the temperature of the flask is heated to 155°C.; injections are initiated once the temperature is above 110° C. Whenthe flask is at 155° C., the syringe pumps are turned on and the twosolutions are pumped into the flask at a rate of 2 mL/hour. with rapidstirring (this will take about two hours). When all of the overcoatingsolutions from the two syringes has been added to the flask, the syringepump lines are removed from the flask. Optionally, the temperature canbe turned down to 100° C., and 10 mL of toluene can be added and allowedto sit overnight under nitrogen.

C. Clean Up of Core CdSe/CdZnS Core-Shell Semiconductor Nanocrystals:

The total growth solution is divided into two aliquots, each being putinto a 50 mL centrifuge tube. An excess ˜30 mL of a 3:1 MeOH/Isopropanolmixture is added to each centrifuge tube and stirred. The centrifugetubes are centrifuged 5 minutes at 4000 rpm. The particles in each tubeare dispersed in about 10 mL of hexane with stirring using a vortexer.The centrifuge tubes are then centrifuged for 5 minutes at 4000 rpm. Thesupernatant includes the hexane and the overcoated cores. Thesupernatant from each tube is placed into another two centrifuge tubes.(The solid is a salt that has formed and is waste.) Thehexane/overcoated core supernatant is filtered using a 0.2 μm syringefilter. An excess of 3:1 methanol/isopropanol is added to each tube toprecipitate the overcoated cores. The tubes are centrifuged for 5minutes at 4000 rpm. The supernatant is poured off. The purifiedovercoated cores are now at the bottom of the tube and the supernatantis waste.

Green-Emitting Quantum Dot Preparation

A. Synthesis of CdZnSe Semiconductor Nanocrystal Cores

ZnSe semiconductor nanocrystals are prepared by rapidly injecting 86 mg(0.7 mmol) diethyl zinc (Strem) and 1 mL tri-n-octylphosphine selenide(TOP) (97% Strem) (1M) dispersed in 5 mL of tri-n-octylphosphine (TOP)(97% Strem), into a round bottom flask containing 7 grams of degassedoleylamine (distilled from 98% Sigma-Aldrich and degassed at 120° C.under nitrogen with stirring) at 310° C. and then growing at 270° C. for30 minutes to one hour.

8 mL of the above ZnSe semiconductor nanocrystal growth solution istransferred, while at 160° C., into a degassed solution of 16 gramstri-n-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO) (99% Strem), and 0.665 grams (4 mmol)hexylphosphonic acid (HPA) (Polycarbon Industries), which is also at160° C. A solution of 1.1 mmol dimethylcadmium (Strem) and 1.2 mL TOPSe(1M) dispersed in 8 mL TOP (97% Strem) is then introduced dropwise (1drop/˜seconds) via a syringe pump into the ZnSe semiconductornanocrystal growth solution/TOPO/HPA mixture, which is at 150° C. Thesolution is then stirred at 150° C. for 21 hours. Before overcoating theCdZnSe cores with CdZnS, the CdZnSe cores are isolated by precipitatingthem out of solution twice with a miscible non-solvent.

B. Overcoating the CdZnSe Cores to Prepare CdZnSe/CdZnS SemiconductorNanocrystals

The CdZnS shell is grown by introducing dropwise a solution ofdimethylcadmium (20% of total moles of cation for a shell ofpredetermined thickness) (Strem), diethylzinc (Strem), andhexamethyldisithiane (2 fold excess of amount for a shell ofpredetermined thickness) (Fluka) in 8 mL of TOP into a degassed solutionof 10 grams of TOPO (99% Strem) and 0.4 grams (2.4 mmol) HPA (PolycarbonIndustries), which contains the CdZnSe cores, at a temperature of 140°C. (the CdZnSe cores dispersed in hexane are added to the degassesTOPO/HPA solution and the hexane is pulled off at 70° C. under vacuumprior to addition of the shell precursors).

Blue-Emitting Quantum Dot Preparation

A. Synthesis of CdZnS Semiconductor Nanocrystal Cores

0.050 g CdO (99.98% Puratronic) and 0.066 g of ZnO (99.99% SigmaAldrich) is weighed out into a 100 mL three necked flask. 4 mL oleicacid (90% tech grade from Aldrich) and 32 mL octadecene (ODE) (90% techgrade from Aldrich) are added to the flask. The flask is set clamped ona heating mantle. One of the necks of the flask is fitted with acondenser connected to a Schlenck line through a vacuum adaptor. Atemperature probe connected to a digital temperature controller isfitted to one of the two remaining flask necks. The third neck of theflask is then fitted with a septum cap. The contents of the flask aredegassed at 80° C. for 20 minutes in vacuo (200 millitorr).

Separately 0.035 g of sulfur (99.99% Strem) is weighed into a septumcapped vial including a stir bar. 10 mL ODE (tech grade) is added to thevial. The vial is heated in an oil bath (connected to the Schlenck line)under vacuum to 80° C. and degassed for 20 minutes. After 20 minutes,vacuum lines are closed, the vial is back-filled with nitrogen and thetemperature is raised to 130° C. to dissolve sulfur in ODE. When all thesulfur is dissolved into ODE, the vial is removed from the oil bath andallowed to cool to room temperature under nitrogen atmosphere.

When the degassing time is completed, the contents of the three neckedflask is stirred at a low stir rate (e.g., a setting of 4) and heated to290° C. and held for 20 minutes at that temperature. Then temperature israised to 310° C. under nitrogen. When the temperature reaches 305° C.,stir rate is increased (e.g., from a setting of 4 to a setting of 5) andthe sample is allowed to heat to 310° C. until all the oxides havedissolved to give a clear solution. The temperature controller is thenset to 300° C. Once the temperature falls to 300° C., approximately 8 mLof S in ODE is rapidly injected after which stir rate is maintained(e.g., at a setting of 5). The temperature of the solution is observedto fall to about 265-270° C. and climb back to 300 C in ˜5 minutes.After 3 hours, heating is stopped by removing the heating mantle and theflask is allowed to cool to room temperature. The contents of the flaskare transferred to a degassed vial under nitrogen, which is transferredto an inert atmosphere box for further purification. Precipitation ofdots may be observed, keep overnight in inert box.

The purification method is as follows:

-   -   The solution is divided in half, each half being added to a        separate centrifuge tubes and centrifuged for 5 min, 4000 rpm.        For each tube, the solvent is poured off and the solid retained        in the tube. 20 mL butanol is added to each tube, followed by        mixing, and then centrifuging. The supernatant butanol is        decanted and discarded. 10 mL methanol is then added to each        tube, followed by mixing and centrifuging. The supernatant        methanol is decanted and discarded. 10 mL hexane is then added        to each tube, followed by mixing and centrifuging. Each tube is        centrifuged again The supernatant hexane collected from each        tube is then poured into a clean tube. (The solids are        discarded.) The nanoparticles in each vial are precipitated by        the addition of 20 mL butanol. The vial is centrifuged and the        liquid decanted and discarded. 10 mL methanol is then added to        each tube, followed by mixing and centrifuging. The supernatant        is discarded. The resulting solid is dispersed in anhydrous        hexane and filtered through a 0.2 micron filter.        B. Overcoating CdZnS Cores to Prepare CdZnS/ZnS Semiconductor        Nanocrystals

5 mL oleylamine and 5 mL trioctylphosphine are added to a degassed 4necked flask equipped with a condenser and temperature probe connectedto a digital temperature controller. The condenser is connected to aSchlenck line. The contents of the flask are degassed at 100° C. for 2hours.

In a glove box, precursor reagents are prepared as follows:

-   -   28 mg diethyl zinc is added to a vial containing 4 mL TOP    -   81 mg hexamethyl disilthiane is added to another vial containing        4 mL TOP.

The contents of the two vials are drawn into two separate syringes andcapped.

After 2 hours of degassing, the temperature in the flask is reduced to70° C. Vacuum lines are closed and the flask is opened to a positivenitrogen atmosphere line. 3.3 mL cores (0.092 mmol) dispersed in hexaneis drawn into a syringe in the glove box and injected into the flask.The nitrogen line is closed and the flask is slowly opened to the vacuumlines to extract hexane from the flask. Degassing is continued undervacuum until all of the hexane is removed. Once the degassing iscompleted, the vacuum lines are closed and positive nitrogen atmosphereis introduced into the flask.

The needles on the syringes containing the precursor reagents areremoved and replaced with microcapillary tubes, the other end of whichis in vials through syringe needle. Air bubbles are removed from thesyringes and the syringes are set on a syringe pump ready for injectionof the contents into the flask. The flow rate of the syringe pump isadjusted for a flow rate of 50 microliters per minute.

The temperature of the flaks is raised to 170° C. The end of themicrocapillary tube attached to the syringe containing hexamethyldisilthiane is introduced into the second septa of the flask using an 18gauge needle and place in such a way that the type of the microcapillarytube is immersed into the contents of the flask. When the temperaturereaches 170° C., the injection of hexamethyl disilthiane is started.After a delay of 2 minutes, the tip of the microcapillary tube of theother syringe containing the diethyl zinc precursor reagent isintroduced into the flask with an 18 gauge needle through the otherseptum of the flask.

Once the addition of the two precursor reagents is completed, thetemperature of the flask is allowed to drop to 90° C. and the contentsof the flask is transferred into a degassed vial using a 20 mL syringe.

The vial containing the reaction mixture is then transferred into theglove box for isolation of the nanoparticles from the reaction mixture.

10 mL of [anhydrous] hexane is added to the vial in the glove box. Thereaction mixture is then divided in half, each half being added to twoseparate centrifuge tubes. 20 mL 1:3 isopropanol:methanol solventmixture is added to each of the tubes, after which each is mixed in thevortex and centrifuged. The supernatant is discarded. 5 mL hexane isadded to each tube and 1:3 isopropanol: methanol solvent mixture isadded dropwise to each tube to reprecipitate the nanoparticles. A slightexcess of the solvent mixture is added. The contents of each tube ismixed and centrifuged. The supernatant is discarded and the precipitatednanoparticles are re-dispersed in 5 mL hexane.

For additional information concerning the preparation of quantum dots,see also International Application No. PCT/US2007/013152, filed Jun. 4,2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for “Light-Emitting Devices And DisplaysWith Improved Performance” and International Application No.PCT/US2007/24305, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Breen, et al., for “Blue LightEmitting Semiconductor Nanocrystal And Compositions And DevicesIncluding Same”, each of which is hereby incorporated herein byreference in its entirety.

Yellow-Emitting Quantum Dot Preparation

A. Synthesis of CdSe Cores:

2 mmol cadmium acetate was dissolved in 35.8 mmol oftri-n-octylphosphine at 140° C. in a 20 mL vial and then dried anddegassed for one hour. 62 mmol of trioctylphosphine oxide and 8 mmol ofoctadecylphosphonic acid were added to a 250 mL 3-neck flask and driedand degassed at 120° C. for one hour. After degassing, the Cd solutionwas added to the oxide/acid flask and the mixture was heated to 270° C.under nitrogen. Once the temperature reached 270° C., 32.3 mmol oftri-n-butylphosphine was injected into the flask. The temperature wasbrought back to 270° C. where 4.4 mL of 1.5 M TBP-Se was then rapidlyinjected. The heating mantle was immediately removed from the reactionflask and the temperature of the reaction was allowed to cool to roomtemperature. The first absorption peak of the nanocrystals reached 515nm. The CdSe cores were precipitated out of the growth solution inside anitrogen atmosphere glovebox by adding a 3:1 mixture of methanol andisopropanol. The isolated cores were then dispersed in hexane and usedto make core-shell materials.

B. Overcoating of CdSe Cores to Synthesis of CdSe/CdZnS Core-ShellNanocrystals:

25.86 mmol of trioctylphosphine oxide and 2.4 mmol ofoctadecylphosphonic acid were loaded into a 50 mL four-neck flask. Themixture was then dried and degassed in the reaction vessel by heating to120° C. for about an hour. The flask was then cooled to 70° C. and thehexane solution containing isolated CdSe cores (0.1 mmol Cd content) wasadded to the reaction mixture. The hexane was removed under reducedpressure and then 2.4 mmol of decylamine was added to the reactionmixture. Dimethyl cadmium, diethyl zinc, and hexamethyldisilathiane wereused as the Cd, Zn, and S precursors, respectively. The Cd and Zn weremixed in equimolar ratios while the S was in two-fold excess relative tothe Cd and Zn. The Cd/Zn (0.37 mmol of dimethylcadmium and diethylzinc)and S (1.46 mmol of hexamethyldisilathiane) samples were each dissolvedin 4 mL of trioctylphosphine inside a nitrogen atmosphere glove box.Once the precursor solutions were prepared, the reaction flask washeated to 155° C. under nitrogen. The precursor solutions were addeddropwise over the course of 2 hours at 155° C. using a syringe pump.After the shell growth, the nanocrystals were transferred to a nitrogenatmosphere glovebox and precipitated out of the growth solution byadding a 3:1 mixture of methanol and isopropanol. The resultingprecipitate was then dispersed in hexane and precipitated out ofsolution for a second time by adding a 3:1 mixture of methanol andisopropanol. The isolated core-shell nanocrystals were then dispersed inhexane and used to make light emitting devices including quantum dots asdescribed below.

II. Test Devices of Table 1

A. Fabrication of Standard (Comparative) Test Device

A standard device was fabricated that includes R-SOP (CdSe/CdZnScore-shell semiconductor nanocrystals) and charge transport layerscomprising organic materials.

The device was made as follows:

-   -   Glass (50 mm×50 mm) with patterned indium tin oxide (ITO)        electrode on one surface (obtained from Osram Malaysia) is        cleaned in an oxygen plasma for about 6 minutes to remove        contaminants and oxygenate the surface. The cleaning takes place        on 100% oxygen at about 20 psi. The glass is placed on a water        cooled plate to help control the increase in temperature during        cleaning.    -   A layer of hole injection material (PEDOT, obtained from H. C.        Starck, GmbH) (HIL) is spun onto the surface of the glass        including the patterned electrode at a speed of 4000 RPM, to a        thickness of about 750 Angstroms. This step is carried out under        ambient conditions (i.e., not in a glove box). The PEDOT coated        glass is then heated on a 120° C. hot plate in a chamber (<20        ppm water & <10 ppm oxygen), in a HEPA filter environment        (approx. Class 1), in a nitrogen atmosphere for >20 minutes to        dry the PEDOT. The PEDOT coated glass is then allowed to cool to        room temperature.    -   A layer of hole transport material        (N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-bis(phenyl)-spiro (spiro-TPD)        (OLED grade, gradient sublimation purified) from Luminescent        Technologies, Taiwan)) is then evaporated onto the PEDOT layer        in a deposition chamber (an {acute over (Å)}MOD chamber,        obtained from Angstrom Engineering, Ottowa, Canada) after the        chamber is pumped down to 10⁻⁶ torr or better. (In Table 1 and        Figures, spiro-TPD is referred to as E105.)    -   The spiro-TPD coated glass is then returned to the nitrogen        environment and stamp-printed with an ink including the SOP        CdSe/CdZnS core-shell semiconductor nanocrystals in hexane. The        emissive layer has a thickness of approximately one monolayer of        quantum dots. [OD=0.03]    -   After printing, the device was returned to the deposition        chamber and pumped back down to 10⁻⁶ torr or better for        evaporation of the next layer, which can be a hole blocking        layer or an electron transport layer.    -   A layer of electron transport material of Alq3 (OLED grade,        gradient sublimation purified) from Luminescent Technologies,        Taiwan) is deposited.    -   Each of the vapor deposited layers are patterned with use of        shadow masks. After deposition of the electron transport        material layer, the mask is changed before deposition of the        metal cathode.

The details of the materials and layer thickness for the Standard deviceare summarized in Table 1 below.

B. Fabrication of Other Test Devices Identified in Table 1

The devices identified in Table 1 (other than the above-describedStandard device) were generally fabricated as set forth below. Thedetails of each device (materials, thicknesses, etc) are set forth inTable 1 below.

-   -   Glass (50 mm×50 mm) with patterned indium tin oxide (ITO)        electrode on one surface (obtained from Osram Malaysia) is        cleaned in an oxygen plasma for about 6 minutes to remove        contaminants and oxygenate the surface. The cleaning takes place        on 100% oxygen at about 20 psi. The glass is placed on a water        cooled plate to help control the increase in temperature during        cleaning.    -   An electron transport layer comprising zinc oxide is prepared as        follows. A zinc acetate [Zn(ac)] solution (157 g/L) in 96%        2-methoxy ethanol and 4% ethanolamine is spun coated at 2000 rpm        onto the ITO. (The zinc acetate was obtained from Sigma        Aldrich.)    -   Subsequent annealing at 300° C. on hot plate for 5 minutes in        air converts Zn(ac) to Zinc oxide. Rinsing of the annealed        Zn(ac) layer in de-ionized water, ethanol and acetone is        expected to remove any residual organic material from the        surface, leaving only crystalline ZnO film with nanoscale domain        size. Then the nanoparticle film is baked at 200° C. to remove        the solvent residue. The thickness of ZnO film is confirmed by        profilometer, typically around 45 nm for single spin.    -   The metal oxide coated glass is then transferred into        nitrogen-filled glove box, which normally has oxygen and water        levels below 1 ppm. A coating formulation including quantum dots        in hexane is spun coated on ZnO surface at 3000 rpm for 1        minute. The quantum dot film thickness is optimized by using        various optical density solutions. Through the device        performance optimization, the thickness of quantum dot film is        kept around 25 nm, and is confirmed by atomic force microscopy        (AFM).    -   After the quantum dots are deposited, the device is returned to        the deposition chamber and pumped back down to 10⁻⁶ torr or        better for evaporation of the next layer.    -   A 50 nm layer of hole transport material        (N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-bis(phenyl)-spiro (spiro-TPD)        (OLED grade, gradient sublimation purified) from Luminescent        Technologies, Taiwan)) is then evaporated onto the emissive        layer in a deposition chamber (an {acute over (Å)}MOD chamber,        obtained from Angstrom Engineering, Ottowa, Canada) after the        chamber is pumped down to 10⁻⁶ torr or better. The hole        transport material are typically (OLED grade, gradient        sublimation purified) obtained from Luminescent Technologies,        Taiwan)).    -   A hole injection layer (5% F4-TCNQ and E-105) (20 nm) is formed        over the hole transport layer by co-evaporation techniques        similar to those described above for preparing the hole        transport layer.    -   Each of the vapor deposited layers are patterned with use of        shadow masks. After deposition of the hole transport material        layer and hole injection layer, the mask is changed before        deposition of a 100 nm Al anode.

TABLE 1 Device Cathode ETL QD HTL HIL Anode Standard LiF/Al Alq₃ SOPE-105 PEDOT:PSS ITO Device (5 {acute over (Å)}/100 nm) (50 nm)(~1monolayer) (50 nm) Red Device ITO ZnO SOP E-105 5% F4-TCNQ Al (FIG.4) (OD 0.025) (50 nm) & E-105 Green Device ITO ZnO GQD E-105 5% F4-TCNQAl (FIG. 5A) (OD 0.025) (50 nm) & E-105 Blue Device ITO ZnO BQD E-105 5%F4-TCNQ Al (FIG. 5B) (OD 0.025) (50 nm) & E-105

Various performance data for the devices of Table 1 are graphicallypresented in FIGS. 3-6. FIGS. 3 and 4 graphically present performancedata for the Red Device described in Table 1. FIG. 5 graphicallypresents performance data for the Green Device (A) and Blue Device (B)of the Examples. Lifetime improvements that can be achieved in certainembodiments of the invention are illustrated in FIG. 6, whichgraphically present lifetime data for the Red Device and the StandardDevice of the Examples.

In certain embodiments, a device is preferably baked or heated afterfabrication, but before encapsulation. In certain embodiments, baking(e.g., at 80° C. on a hot plate in a nitrogen atmosphere) can improvedevice performance.

III. Test Devices of Table 2

The devices identified in Table 2 were generally fabricated as set forthbelow. The details of each device (materials, thicknesses, etc) are setforth in Table 2 below. (Layer thicknesses for the test devices arelisted in Table 2 parenthetically.)

A. Sol Gel Metal Oxide Synthesis:

TiOx Preparation:

The sol-gel procedure for producing TiOx is as follows: titanium(IV)isopropoxide (Ti[OCH(CH₃)₂]4, Aldrich, 99.999%, 10 mL) was prepared as aprecursor and mixed with 2-methoxyethanol (CH₃OCH₂CH₂OH, Aldrich, 99.9+%, 50 mL) and ethanolamine (H₂NCH₂CH₂OH, Aldrich, 99+ %, 5 mL) in athree-necked flask equipped with a condenser, a thermometer, and anargon-gas inlet/outlet. Then, the mixed solution was heated to 80° C.for 2 h in a silicon-oil bath under magnetic stirring, followed byheating to 120° C. for 1 h. The two-step heating (80 and 120° C.) wasthen repeated. The typical TiOx precursor solution was prepared inisopropyl alcohol.

ZnO Preparation:

Test devices identified in Table 2 that include a ZnO layer werefabricated on patterned ITO substrates that were sonicated in acetoneand isopropyl alcohol for 10 minutes each, followed by 6 minutes O₂plasma treatment. A zinc acetate (99.999% grade from Sigma-Aldrich)[Zn(ac) solution (157 g/L) in 96% 2-methoxy ethanol (from Alfa) and 4%ethanolamine (from Sigma-Aldrich) was spin coated at 2000 rpm onto theITO. This step is carried out under ambient conditions (i.e., not in aglove box). Subsequent annealing at 300° C. for 30 minutes in airconverted the Zn(ac) to ZnO. The resulting film was rinsed in de-ionizedwater, methanol, acetone and methanol then dried in the glove box (<1ppm water & <1 ppm oxygen) at 200° C. for 5 minutes on hot plate.

Mixed ZnO—TiOx Preparation:

The spin coating sol-gel formulations used to fabricate a mixed ZnO—TiOxlayer utilized a mixture of a ZnO spin coating sol-gel formulation(prepared substantially as described above) and a TiOx spin coatingsol-gel formulation (prepared substantially as described above). The ZnOand TiOx formulations are mixed in a predetermined proportion.

B. Device Fabrication Process

Glass (50 mm×50 mm) with patterned indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode onone surface (obtained from Thin Film Devices, Anaheim, Calif.) iscleaned in oxygen plasma for about 6 minutes to remove contaminants andoxygenate the surface. The cleaning takes place on 100% oxygen at about20 psi. The glass is placed on a water cooled plate to help control theincrease in temperature during cleaning.

An electron transport layer comprising a metal oxide was formed bysol-gel technique (ZnO and/or TiO_(x), as indicated in Table 2).prepared substantially as described above). The metal oxide coated glassis then returned to the nitrogen environment and spin-coated with an inkincluding quantum dots in hexane. In order to get rid of residualsolvent trapped in the quantum dot layer, post-baking on partialfinished device at 80° C. on hot plate (in glove box) is favorable.Then, the device is returned to the deposition chamber and pumped backdown to 10⁻⁷ torr or better for evaporation of the next layer.

A layer of hole transport material is then evaporated onto the emissivelayer in a deposition chamber (an {acute over (Å)}MOD chamber, obtainedfrom Angstrom Engineering, Ottowa, Canada) after the chamber is pumpeddown to 10⁻⁷ torr or better. The hole transport material are typically(OLED grade, gradient sublimation purified) obtained from LuminescentTechnologies, Taiwan).

If a hole injection layer is included in the device, it is formed overthe hole transport layer. Each of the vapor deposited layers arepatterned with use of shadow masks. After deposition of the holetransport material layer and hole injection layer, the mask is changedbefore deposition of the metal anode.

After device fabrication done in evaporation chamber, the finisheddevice is encapsulated with glass lid and ready for testing.

TABLE II Device Cathode ETL QD HTL HIL Anode A ITO — RQD spiro-NPBLG-101 Al (~35 nm)  (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) B ITO/Al — RQD spiro-NPBLG-101 Al (5 nm) (~35 nm)  (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) C ITO/Al — RQDspiro-NPB LG-101 Al (5 nm) (35 nm) (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) E ITO ZnORQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (45 nm) (35 nm) (60 nm) (10 nm) (100 nm) F ITOZnO:TiOx RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (1:1) (45 nm) (35 nm) (60 nm) (10 nm)(100 nm) G ITO ZnO:TiOx RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (2:1) (45 nm) (35 nm)(60 nm) (10 nm) (100 nm) H ITO TiOx RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (45 nm) (35nm) (60 nm) (10 nm) (100 nm) I ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (45 nm)(35 nm) (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) J ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB WO₃ Al (45 nm)(35 nm) (55 nm) (100 nm) K ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB — Al (45 nm) (35 nm)(55 nm) (100 nm) L ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB WO₃ Al (45 nm) (35 nm) (55 nm)(100 nm) M (FIG. ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al 11 & 12) (45 nm) (35nm) (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) N (FIG. ITO ZnO YQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al 13& 14) (45 nm) (35 nm) (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm)

Various performance data for the devices of described in Table 2 aregraphically presented in FIGS. 7-15.

FIG. 7 shows I-V curves of inverted structures with LG-101 and WO3 ashole injection layers respectively. Device K is inverted structure withno hole injection layer. From the data, device K has insufficientcurrent injection through anode.

FIG. 8 shows device luminance efficiency in different device structures.The most efficient device is a device in accordance with an embodimentof the invention that includes small molecular material LG 101 as holeinjection layer. Without a hole injection layer, luminance (see DeviceK) is not observable.

FIG. 9 shows the luminance efficiency of a device without an electrontransport & injection layer and without a hole blocking layer.

FIG. 10 shows luminance of inverted device without an electron transport& injection layer and without a hole blocking layer.

FIG. 11 shows device performance for a device in accordance with anembodiment of the invention that includes an emissive layer includingred-light emitting quantum dots. Peak external quantum efficiency (EQE)2.1% reaches at 3.46 v with brightness of 9671 nits.

FIG. 12 shows a device in accordance with an embodiment of the inventionthat includes an emissive layer including red-light emitting quantumdots operating at very low voltage. Inset is EL spectrum of this device.It is noticed that the turn on voltage for this device is extremely low.

FIG. 13 shows a device in accordance with an embodiment of the inventionthat includes an emissive layer including yellow-light emitting quantumdots operating at very low voltage. The turn on voltage for this deviceis below the energy required to overcome band gap of yellow emitter,which is 2.1 V. Inset is EL spectrum of a yellow quantum dot lightemitting device. Peak brightness 41300 cd/m2 is obtained at 8V.

FIG. 14 shows efficiency of Device N at certain luminance. The peakluminance efficiency 9.8 lm/W reaches at 3V with 2620 nits. The peakluminance efficiency 9.46 cd/A reaches at 3.5V with 6800 nits.

FIG. 15 shows examples of mixing ZnO with TiOx, which may improve thedevice efficiency by charge balance.

Light-emitting devices in accordance with various embodiments of theinvention may be incorporated into a wide variety of consumer products,including flat panel displays, computer monitors, televisions,billboards, lights for interior or exterior illumination and/orsignaling, heads up displays, fully transparent displays, flexibledisplays, laser printers, telephones, cell phones, personal digitalassistants (PDAs), laptop computers, digital cameras, camcorders,viewfinders, micro-displays, vehicles, a large area wall, theater orstadium screen, a sign, lamps and various solid state lighting devices.

Other materials, techniques, methods, applications, and information thatmay be useful with the present invention are described in: InternationalApplication No. PCT/US2007/008873, filed Apr. 9, 2007, of Coe-Sullivanet al., for “Composition Including Material, Methods Of DepositingMaterial, Articles Including Same And Systems For Depositing Material”;International Application No. PCT/US2007/09255, filed Apr. 13, 2007, ofAnc, et al., for “Methods Of Depositing Material, Methods Of Making ADevice, And System”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/003411,filed Feb. 8, 2007, of Beatty, et al., for “Device IncludingSemiconductor Nanocrystals And A Layer Including A Doped OrganicMaterial And Methods”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/14711,filed Jun. 25, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, for “Methods For DepositingNanomaterial, Methods For Fabricating A Device, And Methods ForFabricating An Array Of Devices”; International Application No.PCT/US2007/14705, filed Jun. 25, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for“Methods For Depositing Nanomaterial, Methods For Fabricating A Device,Methods For Fabricating An Array Of Devices And Compositions”;International Application No. PCT/US2007/008705, filed Apr. 9, 2007, ofCoe-Sullivan, et al., for “Methods And Articles Including Nanomaterial”;International Application No. PCT/US2007/014706, filed Jun. 25, 2007, ofcoe-sullivan, et al., for “Methods And Articles Including Nanomaterial”;International Application No. PCT/US2007/003525, filed Feb. 8, 2007, ofCoe-Sullivan, et al., for “Displays Including Semiconductor NanocrystalsAnd Methods Of Making Same”; International Application No.PCT/US2007/008721, filed Apr. 9, 2007, of Cox, et al., for “Methods OfDepositing Nanomaterial & Methods Of Making A Device”; InternationalApplication No. PCT/US2007/019797, filed Sep. 12, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan,et al., for “A Composite Including Nanoparticles, Methods, And ProductsIncluding A Composite”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/019796,of Coe-Sullivan, et al., filed Sep. 12, 2007, for “ElectroluminescentDisplay Useful For Displaying A Predetermined Pattern”; InternationalApplication No. PCT/US2007/24320, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Clough, etal., for “Nanocrystals Including A Group IIIa Element And A Group VaElement, Method, Composition, Device And Other Products”; U.S. PatentApplication No. 60/971887, filed Sep. 12, 2007, of Breen, et al., for“Functionalized Semiconductor Nanocrystals And Method”; U.S. PatentApplication No. 60/992598, filed Dec. 5, 2007, of Breen, et al.,“Functionalized Semiconductor Nanocrystals And Method”; InternationalApplication No. PCT/US2007/24305, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Breen, et al.,for “Blue Light Emitting Semiconductor Nanocrystal And Compositions AndDevices Including Same”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24306,filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Ramprasad, for “Semiconductor Nanocrystal AndCompositions And Devices Including Same”; International Application No.PCT/US2007/013152, filed Jun. 4, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for“Light-Emitting Devices And Displays With Improved Performance”;International Application No. PCT/US2007/24750, of Coe-Sullivan, et al.,filed Dec. 3, 2007 “Improved Composites And Devices IncludingNanoparticles”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24310, filedNov. 21, 2007, of Kazlas, et al., for “Light-Emitting Devices AndDisplays With Improved Performance”; International Application No.PCT/US2007/003677, filed Feb. 14, 2007, of Bulovic, et al., for “SolidState Lighting Devices Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals & Methods”,U.S. Patent Application No. 61/016227, filed 21 Dec. 2007, ofCoe-Sullivan et al., for “Compositions, Optical Component, SystemIncluding an Optical Component, and Devices”, U.S. Patent ApplicationNo. 60/949306, filed 12 Jul. 2007, of Linton , et al., for“Compositions, Methods For Depositing Nanomaterial, Methods ForFabricating A Device, And Methods For Fabricating An Array Of Devices”,and U.S. Patent Application No. 60/992598, filed 5 Dec. 2007. Thedisclosures of each of the foregoing listed patent documents are herebyincorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include pluralunless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example,reference to an emissive material includes reference to one or more ofsuch materials.

As used herein, “top” and “bottom” are relative positional terms, basedupon a location from a reference point. More particularly, “top” meansfurthest away from the substrate, while “bottom” means closest to thesubstrate. For example, for a light-emitting device including twoelectrodes, the bottom electrode is the electrode closest to thesubstrate, and is generally the first electrode fabricated; the topelectrode is the electrode that is more remote from the substrate, onthe top side of the light-emitting material. The bottom electrode hastwo surfaces, a bottom surface closest to the substrate, and a topsurface further away from the substrate. Where, e.g., a first layer isdescribed as disposed or deposited “over” a second layer, the firstlayer is disposed further away from substrate. There may be other layersbetween the first and second layer, unless it is otherwise specified.For example, a cathode may be described as “disposed over” an anode,even though there are various organic and/or inorganic layers inbetween.

The entire contents of all patent publications and other publicationscited in this disclosure are hereby incorporated herein by reference intheir entirety. Further, when an amount, concentration, or other valueor parameter is given as either a range, preferred range, or a list ofupper preferable values and lower preferable values, this is to beunderstood as specifically disclosing all ranges formed from any pair ofany upper range limit or preferred value and any lower range limit orpreferred value, regardless of whether ranges are separately disclosed.Where a range of numerical values is recited herein, unless otherwisestated, the range is intended to include the endpoints thereof, and allintegers and fractions within the range. It is not intended that thescope of the invention be limited to the specific values recited whendefining a range.

Other embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to thoseskilled in the art from consideration of the present specification andpractice of the present invention disclosed herein. It is intended thatthe present specification and examples be considered as exemplary onlywith a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by thefollowing claims and equivalents thereof.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A light emitting device including, incombination, a cathode comprising indium tin oxide, a layer comprising amaterial capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising acrystalline zinc oxide, an emissive layer comprising quantum dots havinga core/shell structure, a layer comprising a material capable oftransporting holes comprising an organic small molecule spiro-compound,a layer comprising a hole injection material, and an anode, wherein thelayers are formed in the following sequential order: the cathode, thelayer comprising a material capable of transporting and injectingelectrons comprising a crystalline zinc oxide, the emissive layercomprising quantum dots, the layer comprising a material capable oftransporting holes, the layer comprising a hole injection material, andthe anode, and wherein the hole injection material comprises a materialcapable of transporting holes that is p-type doped.
 2. A light emittingdevice in accordance with claim 1 wherein the quantum dots comprisesemiconductor nanocrystals.
 3. A light emitting device in accordancewith claim 1 wherein the layer comprising a material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons further comprises a second metaloxide.
 4. A light emitting device in accordance with claim 3 wherein thesecond metal oxide comprises a titanium dioxide.
 5. A light emittingdevice in accordance with claim 1 wherein the layer comprising amaterial capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises amixture including the crystalline zinc oxide and one or more additionalinorganic materials.
 6. A light emitting device in accordance with claim1 further including a spacer layer between the emissive layer and atleast one of the layers of the device adjacent to the emissive layer. 7.A light emitting device in accordance with claim 1 further including aspacer layer between the layer comprising a material capable oftransporting holes and the emissive layer.
 8. A light emitting device inaccordance with claim 1 further including a spacer layer between theemissive layer and the layer comprising a material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons.
 9. A light emitting device inaccordance with claim 6 wherein the spacer layer comprises a materialnon-quenching to quantum dot emission.
 10. A light emitting device inaccordance with claim 1 wherein the quantum dots are capable of emittinginfrared light.
 11. A light emitting device in accordance with claim 1wherein the quantum dots are capable of emitting visible light.
 12. Alight emitting device in accordance with claim 1 wherein the emissivelayer includes two or more different types of quantum dots, wherein eachtype is selected to emit light having a predetermined distinct color.13. A light emitting device in accordance with claim 1 wherein the zincoxide is doped with a species to enhance its electron transportcharacteristics.
 14. A light emitting device in accordance with claim 1wherein the layer comprising a material capable of transporting andinjecting electrons comprises a stratified structure including two ormore horizontal zones, wherein each of the two or more horizontal zonescomprises a doped or undoped form of zinc oxide.
 15. A light emittingdevice in accordance with claim 14 wherein the stratified structureincludes a first zone, on a first side of the structure closer to thecathode, comprising an n-type doped zinc oxide with electron injectingcharacteristics, and a second zone, on a second side of the structureopposite the first side of the structure and closer to the emissivelayer, comprising an intrinsic or lightly doped zinc oxide with electrontransport characteristics.
 16. A light emitting device in accordancewith claim 15 wherein the n-type doped zinc oxide included in the secondzone has a lower n-type dopant concentration than that of the zinc oxidein the first zone.
 17. A light emitting device in accordance with claim14 wherein the stratified structure includes a first zone, on a side ofthe structure closer to the cathode, comprising an n-type doped zincoxide with electron injecting characteristics, a third zone, on a sideof the structure closer to the emissive layer, comprising an intrinsiczinc oxide with hole blocking characteristics, and a second zone,between the first and third zones, comprising an intrinsic or lightlydoped zinc oxide with electron transport characteristics.
 18. A lightemitting device in accordance with claim 1 wherein the layer comprisinga material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises afirst layer, closer to the cathode, comprising a material capable ofinjecting electrons and a second layer, closer to the emissive layer,comprising a material capable of transporting electrons, wherein atleast one of the first layer and second layer comprises a form of zincoxide.
 19. A light emitting device in accordance with claim 1 whereinthe layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injectingelectrons comprises a first layer, closer to the cathode, comprising amaterial capable of injecting electrons, a second layer, closer to theemissive layer, comprising a material capable of blocking holes, and athird layer between the first and second layers, comprising a materialcapable of transporting electrons, wherein at least one of the firstlayer, second layer, and third layer comprises a form of zinc oxide. 20.A light emitting device in accordance with claim 1 wherein the layercomprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electronscomprises a crystalline ZnO film with nanoscale domain size.
 21. A lightemitting device in accordance with claim 1 wherein an adhesion promoteris included between the layer comprising a material capable oftransporting and injecting electrons and the emissive layer.
 22. A lightemitting device in accordance with claim 1 wherein the hole injectionmaterial comprises a material capable of transporting holes that isp-type doped with a p-dopant comprisingtetrafluoro-tetracyano-quinodimethane.
 23. A light emitting deviceincluding, in combination, a cathode comprising indium tin oxide, alayer comprising a material capable of transporting and injectingelectrons comprising a crystalline zinc oxide, an emissive layercomprising quantum dots having a core/shell structure, a layercomprising a material capable of transporting holes comprising anorganic small molecule spiro-compound, a layer comprising a holeinjection material, and an anode, wherein the layers are formed in thefollowing sequential order: the cathode, the layer comprising a materialcapable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising a crystallinezinc oxide, the emissive layer comprising quantum dots, the layercomprising a material capable of transporting holes, the layercomprising a hole injection material, and the anode, and wherein thehole injection material is an inorganic material.